Introduction to History and Early India

History is the systematic study of past events. The term is derived from the Greek word Historia, which means inquiry or knowledge gained through investigation. It deals not only with past happenings but also with the collection, organisation, interpretation, and presentation of evidence related to those events.

Major Divisions of History

The study of the past is generally divided into three broad stages:

1. Prehistory

This period includes all events that took place before the invention of writing. Since written records were absent, knowledge of this age mainly comes from archaeological findings such as tools, pottery, bones, and settlements. The prehistoric age is commonly represented through the three Stone Ages.

2. Protohistory

Protohistory refers to the transitional phase between prehistory and recorded history. During this time, societies may not have developed readable scripts of their own, but they are mentioned in the writings of contemporary literate civilisations.

For example, the script of the Indus Valley Civilization remains undeciphered, yet references to it appear in Mesopotamian records. Therefore, it is considered part of protohistory. Likewise, the Vedic civilisation from around 1500 BCE to 600 BCE is also often placed in this category. Many archaeologists also include Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures within protohistory.

3. History

This stage begins after the invention of writing. It includes the study of literate societies using written documents along with archaeological evidence.

Reconstruction of Ancient Indian History

To understand Ancient India, historians depend on different categories of evidence. These are broadly divided into:

A. Non-Literary Sources

B. Literary Sources

A. Non-Literary Sources

Non-literary evidence provides direct material proof about the life, economy, administration, religion, and technology of earlier societies.

1. Coins

In ancient India, currency existed mainly in the form of coins rather than paper money. The earliest Indian coins were punch-marked coins made of silver and copper and carried only a few symbols. Later coins began to mention names of kings, deities, dates, and titles.

Coins help historians identify ruling dynasties, trade routes, regions of circulation, religious symbols, scripts, artistic styles, and metallurgical advancement. They are especially useful for reconstructing the history of Indo-Greek rulers who entered India from northern Afghanistan during the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. The study of coins is known as Numismatics.

2. Archaeology and Material Remains

Archaeology is the scientific study of ancient human life through excavation of old sites in successive layers. Through this method, historians examine houses, tools, pottery, bones, ornaments, and other remains. Their age is often determined through radiocarbon dating.

Excavations of Harappan sites reveal the lifestyle of people of that civilisation. Similarly, megalithic burials in South India throw light on societies of the Deccan and peninsular India before 300 BCE. Plant remains and pollen studies also help reconstruct ancient climate and vegetation.

3. Inscriptions

Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone pillars, rocks, seals, and copper plates. They record royal orders, victories, grants, religious ideas, and administrative decisions.

The study of inscriptions is called Epigraphy. Important examples include the edicts of Ashoka and land grant inscriptions issued by Satavahana rulers of the Deccan.

4. Foreign Accounts

Several foreign travellers, ambassadors, and pilgrims visited India and left valuable descriptions of Indian society and governance.

• Megasthenes wrote Indica, an important source on Mauryan administration.
• Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography describe ports and trade between India and the Roman world.
• Faxian described India during the Gupta age.
• Xuanzang provided detailed information about India under Harshavardhana and the glory of Nalanda University.

Literary Sources of Ancient Indian History

Literary sources occupy a central place in reconstructing the history of Ancient India. They provide valuable information about political systems, religious beliefs, philosophical ideas, social customs, economy, and cultural traditions. These sources are broadly divided into two categories:

A. Religious Literature

B. Secular Literature

A. Religious Literature

Religious texts are among the earliest available written records of India. Though composed mainly for spiritual purposes, they also contain rich historical material.

1. The Four Vedas

The Vedas are the oldest sacred texts of India and are generally dated between c.1500 BCE and 500 BCE. They form the foundation of early Vedic culture.

• Rigveda mainly consists of hymns and prayers.
• Samaveda contains chants and melodies.
• Yajurveda focuses on sacrificial formulas and rituals.
• Atharvaveda includes spells, charms, rituals, and mythological references.

Together, these texts help explain the religious life, society, and early institutions of the Vedic age.

2. Upanishads

The Upanishads, also known as Vedanta, contain profound philosophical discussions on the nature of the soul (Atman) and the universal spirit (Paramatman or Brahman). They reflect the intellectual development of later Vedic society.

3. Epics: Mahabharata and Ramayana

The two great Indian epics are important historical and cultural sources.

Mahabharata

It is considered older than the Ramayana and may reflect conditions between the 10th century BCE and 4th century CE. It originally contained 8,800 verses under the title Jaya Samhita, which later expanded to around 100,000 verses and became known as the Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative, moral, and philosophical material.

Ramayana

Originally composed with about 12,000 verses, it later expanded to nearly 24,000 verses. Later additions also introduced didactic and moral teachings.

4. Sutra Literature

The Sutras contain concise ritual and social instructions.

• Shrauta Sutras deal with sacrifices and royal ceremonies.
• Grihya Sutras discuss household rites such as birth, naming ceremonies, marriage, and funerals.

5. Buddhist Literature

Early Buddhist texts were written in Pali and are collectively known as the Tripitaka or “Three Baskets”:

• Sutta Pitaka
• Vinaya Pitaka
• Abhidhamma Pitaka

These texts offer valuable insight into the political, economic, and social conditions during the time of Gautama Buddha.

6. Jain Literature

Jain religious texts, known as the Angas, were written in Prakrit. They contain philosophical teachings and important references to political developments in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar during the age of Mahavira. They also mention trade, merchants, and urban activity.

B. Secular Literature

Secular works were composed for political, legal, literary, or historical purposes and are equally valuable.

1. Dharmashastras

Dharmashastras laid down duties of different varnas, kings, and officials. They also discussed inheritance, property rights, administration, and punishments for crimes such as theft and murder.

2. Arthashastra

Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, reflects the political organisation, economy, diplomacy, and governance of the Mauryan age.

3. Works of Kalidasa

Kalidasa composed celebrated literary works including Abhijnanasakuntalam. Besides literary excellence, these works reveal the cultural and social life of northern and central India during the Gupta period.

4. Rajatarangini

Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana, describes the political and social history of 12th century Kashmir.

5. Charitas / Biographies

Court poets often wrote biographies praising rulers.

Example: Harshacharita written by Banabhatta in honour of King Harshavardhana.

6. Sangam Literature

Sangam Literature is the earliest known literary tradition of South India. It was produced by assemblies of poets and gives detailed information about the political, social, and economic life of people in ancient Tamil regions.

Important works include Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.

Prehistoric Periods in India According to Tools

The prehistoric age in India is mainly classified on the basis of the tools used by early humans. Since writing had not yet developed, archaeological discoveries such as stone implements, bones, pottery, and settlement remains form the major sources of information for this period.

Broad Division of Ancient Prehistoric Periods

Period	Approximate Time
Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age)	500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
Mesolithic Period (Middle / Late Stone Age)	10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)	6000 BCE – 1000 BCE
Chalcolithic Period (Stone-Copper Age)	3000 BCE – 500 BCE
Iron Age	1500 BCE – 200 BCE

Stone Age in India

The Stone Age refers to the long prehistoric phase when humans primarily used stone tools. It predates the invention of script; therefore, historians rely mainly on excavations for evidence.

The first palaeolithic tool discovered in India was the famous Pallavaram handaxe, found by Robert Bruce Foote, who is often regarded as the father of Indian prehistory.

Main Divisions of the Stone Age

On the basis of geological age, technology of tools, and food habits, the Indian Stone Age is divided into three major phases:

1. Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Approx. 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE

2. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

Approx. 10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE

3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

Approx. 6000 BCE – 1000 BCE

Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

The term Palaeolithic comes from Greek words:

• Palaeo = old
• Lithic = stone

Hence, it literally means Old Stone Age.

This phase developed during the Pleistocene epoch, commonly known as the Ice Age. During this time, large parts of the earth experienced severe cold conditions. However, tropical zones where ice melted supported early human life.

Major Features of the Palaeolithic Age

• Early humans are believed to have belonged to the Negrito racial group according to older historical classifications.
• They lived in open spaces, caves, river valleys, and rock shelters.
• They were hunters and food gatherers who survived on wild fruits, roots, and animals.
• There was no knowledge of agriculture, pottery, or permanent houses.
• Fire was discovered only in later stages.
• In the Upper Palaeolithic phase, evidence of cave paintings appears.
• Tools were rough and unpolished, including hand axes, choppers, blades, burins, and scrapers.
• Since many tools were made of quartzite, Palaeolithic humans in India are sometimes called Quartzite Men.

Three Stages of the Palaeolithic Age

1. Lower Palaeolithic Age

Up to 100,000 BCE

2. Middle Palaeolithic Age

100,000 BCE – 40,000 BCE

3. Upper Palaeolithic Age

40,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE

Lower Palaeolithic Age

This phase covered a large part of the Ice Age.

Main Features

• Humans depended on hunting and food gathering.
• Tools were heavy and crude.
• Important tools: hand axes, cleavers, and choppers.
• Limestone was also used in tool making.
• One of the earliest sites is Bori in Maharashtra.

Important Sites

• Soan Valley (present-day Pakistan)
• Thar Desert region
• Kashmir
• Mewar plains
• Saurashtra
• Gujarat
• Central India
• Deccan Plateau
• Chotanagpur Plateau
• North of the Cauvery River
• Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh)
• Bhimbetka Rock Shelters – important habitation site with caves and shelters.

Middle Palaeolithic Age

Main Features

• Tools became smaller, thinner, and lighter.
• Flakes, blades, borers, scrapers, and pointers were common.
• Use of hand axes declined compared to earlier times.

Important Sites

• Belan Valley (UP)
• Luni Valley (Rajasthan)
• Son and Narmada river valleys
• Bhimbetka Rock Shelters
• Tungabhadra valley
• Potwar Plateau (between Indus and Jhelum)
• Sanghao Cave near Peshawar (Pakistan)

Upper Palaeolithic Age

This phase coincided with the final stage of the Ice Age when climate became warmer and less humid.

Main Features

• Emergence of Homo sapiens.
• Major progress in tool-making techniques.
• Bone tools became common.
• Needles, harpoons, fishing tools, parallel-sided blades, and burins were used.

Important Sites

• Bhimbetka Rock Shelters
• Belan Valley
• Son Valley
• Chota Nagpur Plateau
• Maharashtra
• Odisha
• Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
• Bone tools found at Kurnool caves and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.

Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek words:

• Meso = Middle
• Lithic = Stone

Therefore, Mesolithic literally means Middle Stone Age. It represents the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages.

Time Period

The Mesolithic Age in India is generally dated from 10,000 BCE to 6000 BCE.

Environmental Changes

Both the Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene era. During this period:

• Temperature increased gradually.
• Climate became warmer.
• Ice sheets melted.
• New plant and animal life expanded.

These environmental changes greatly influenced human settlement and lifestyle.

Major Features of the Mesolithic Age

1. Food and Economy

• People initially lived through hunting, fishing, and food gathering.
• Later, they began domesticating animals and cultivating plants.
• This stage laid the foundation for agriculture.

2. Domestication of Animals

• The earliest domesticated animal was the wild ancestor of the dog.
• Sheep and goats became common domestic animals.

3. Settlements

• People began living in semi-permanent settlements.
• They occupied caves as well as open areas.
• Human communities became more organised than in earlier ages.

4. Belief in Afterlife

• Evidence suggests belief in life after death.
• Dead bodies were buried with food items and goods.

5. Tools – Microliths

The most important feature of this age was the use of microliths, which were very small stone tools made from materials such as chalcedony, chert, and crypto-crystalline silica.

These tools were:

• Geometrical and non-geometrical in shape
• Used independently as tools
• Fixed on wooden or bone handles to make composite tools
• Used for arrowheads, spearheads, sickles, and cutting implements

Microliths helped humans hunt smaller animals and birds more efficiently.

6. Clothing

• People started wearing clothes made from animal skins.

7. Art and Culture

Mesolithic people were lovers of art and initiated early rock paintings.

Common themes included:

• Wild animals
• Hunting scenes
• Dancing
• Food gathering
• Social group activities

These paintings indicate the rise of religious practices and division of labour based on gender.

8. Expansion into Ganga Plains

• The first major human colonisation of the Ganga plains took place during this period.

Important Mesolithic Sites in India

Bagor

• One of the largest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India.
• Located on the Kothari River.
• Microliths, animal bones, and shells were discovered here.

Adamgarh

• Provides early evidence of animal domestication.

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

• Major centre of Mesolithic rock art.
• One of the richest prehistoric painting zones in India.

Other Important Rock Art Areas

• Kharwar (Madhya Pradesh)
• Jaora (Madhya Pradesh)
• Kathotia (Madhya Pradesh)
• Sundargarh (Odisha)
• Sambalpur (Odisha)
• Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala)

Other Archaeological Regions

Microliths have also been found in river valleys of:

• Tapi
• Sabarmati
• Narmada
• Mahi

Langhnaj

• Bones of rhinoceros, blackbuck, and other wild animals found.
• Human skeletons and microliths recovered.

Biharanpur

• Human remains and tools discovered.

Pottery Evidence

Though pottery was absent at many Mesolithic sites, it has been found at:

• Langhnaj (Gujarat)
• Kaimur region of Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh)

Quick Revision Points

• Transitional phase between Old and New Stone Age
• Microliths were chief tools
• Semi-settled life began
• Domestication of animals started
• Rock paintings flourished
• First settlements in Ganga plains
• Important sites: Bagor, Adamgarh, Bhimbetka, Langhnaj

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

The term Neolithic comes from two Greek words:

• Neo = New
• Lithic = Stone

Hence, Neolithic means New Stone Age. It marks a major turning point in human history because people gradually shifted from food gathering to food production.

Time Period

The Neolithic Age in India is generally placed between 6000 BCE and 1000 BCE.

Why It Is Called a Revolution

The Neolithic Age is often described as the Neolithic Revolution because it introduced deep changes in economic and social life. Humans began farming, domesticating animals, making permanent settlements, and producing tools of better quality. It laid the base for later civilisation.

Major Features of the Neolithic Age

1. Tools and Weapons

Neolithic people used improved tools compared to earlier ages.

• Polished stone tools became common.
• Ground stone axes and celts were widely used.
• Microlithic blades continued in some places.
• Bone tools such as needles, borers, scrapers, and arrowheads were also used.

These polished tools made cultivation, hunting, wood cutting, and construction easier.

2. Agriculture

The greatest development of this age was farming.

• People cultivated land regularly.
• Crops included ragi and horse gram (kulati).
• Fruits and grains were also grown.
• Food production reduced total dependence on hunting and gathering.

3. Domestication of Animals

People domesticated several animals for food, milk, labour, and protection.

• Cattle
• Sheep
• Goats

4. Pottery

With settled life and farming, food storage became necessary. As a result, pottery developed on a large scale.

Common pottery types included:

• Grey ware
• Black-burnished ware
• Mat-impressed ware

In the early stage, handmade pottery was common. Later, the foot wheel was used for making pots.

5. Housing and Settled Life

Neolithic communities adopted a more permanent lifestyle.

• Houses were rectangular or circular.
• They were built with mud and reeds.
• Villages began to develop.
• People learned to make boats.
• Cotton and wool were spun.
• Weaving of cloth was practiced.

This settled life created the foundation of organised society and civilisation.

6. Geographical Preference

Many Neolithic communities lived near:

• Hilly river valleys
• Slopes of hills
• Rock shelters

These areas provided water, raw materials, and natural protection.

Important Neolithic Sites in India

Koldihwa and Mahagara

• Located south of Allahabad (Prayagraj region).
• Evidence of circular huts and handmade pottery found.
• Important evidence of rice cultivation discovered here, considered among the earliest in India and the world.

Mehrgarh

• Earliest Neolithic site in the northwestern region.
• People lived in sun-dried brick houses.
• Cultivated crops such as cotton and wheat.

Burzahom

• Famous for pit dwellings.
• Domestic dogs were buried with their owners.
• Polished stone and bone tools used.

Gufkral

• Known for pit dwellings.
• Stone tools and burial remains found inside houses.

Chirand

• Bone tools and weapons discovered.

Karnataka Sites

Important southern Neolithic sites:

• Piklihal
• Brahmagiri
• Maski
• Takkalakota
• Hallur

Features:

• Cattle herding communities
• Domesticated sheep and goats
• Ash mounds discovered

Belan Valley

A highly significant prehistoric region where the three phases:

• Palaeolithic
• Mesolithic
• Neolithic

are found in sequence.

Quick Revision Points

• New Stone Age = shift to farming
• Polished stone tools used
• Permanent villages developed
• Pottery and weaving advanced
• Animal domestication expanded
• Important sites: Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Chirand, Koldihwa

Chalcolithic Age (Stone-Copper Age)

The term Chalcolithic is derived from words meaning copper and stone. This phase marks the period when humans began using metal tools, especially copper, along with stone implements. It represents a major transition between the Neolithic stage and later Bronze and Iron Age cultures.

Time Period

The Chalcolithic Age in India is generally dated from 3000 BCE to 500 BCE.

Historical Importance

• Copper was the first metal widely used.
• Stone tools continued alongside copper tools.
• In many regions, this phase was linked with the pre-Harappan stage.
• In several other areas, it continued after the decline of the Harappan civilisation.

Major Features of the Chalcolithic Age

1. Agriculture and Cattle Rearing

The people of this period practiced both farming and animal husbandry.

Domesticated Animals

• Cows
• Sheep
• Goats
• Pigs
• Buffaloes

They also hunted deer. It is uncertain whether they were familiar with the horse.

Food Habits and Crops

• Wheat
• Rice
• Bajra
• Lentil (Masur)
• Black gram
• Green gram
• Grass pea

Regional crops included:

• Cotton in the black soil region of the Deccan
• Ragi, bajra, and millets in the lower Deccan

In eastern India, fish and rice formed an important part of the diet.

2. Pottery

Pottery became highly developed during this age.

Important varieties included:

• Black and red ware
• Ochre-coloured pottery

Other features:

• Potter’s wheel was used.
• White linear paintings and designs were made on pottery.

3. Rural Settlements

Chalcolithic society was mainly village-based.

• People lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks.
• Burnt bricks were generally unknown.
• Villages often had more than 35 houses.
• Houses were circular or rectangular.

This period also shows signs of emerging social inequality:

• Chiefs lived in rectangular houses.
• Common people lived in round huts.

4. Art and Craft

Chalcolithic people possessed notable craft skills.

• Skilled coppersmiths
• Copper smelting known
• Good stone workers
• Spinning and weaving practiced
• Cloth manufacturing known

However, writing had not yet developed among them.

5. Religion and Worship

Archaeological remains indicate religious practices.

• Small clay images of mother goddesses found.
• Suggests worship of fertility or earth mother cults.
• Bull terracotta figures found in Malwa and Rajasthan indicate bull worship or symbolic reverence.

6. Health and Infant Mortality

• A large number of child burials found in West Maharashtra indicate high infant mortality.
• Despite being food-producing communities, life expectancy appears limited.

7. Jewellery and Ornaments

Chalcolithic communities were fond of decoration.

Women used ornaments made from:

• Shell
• Bone

They also used:

• Fine combs
• Beads of carnelian
• Steatite
• Quartz crystal

Important Chalcolithic Sites in India

Ahar

• Located in Banas Valley.
• Known for copper smelting and metallurgy.
• Supplied copper tools to nearby communities.
• Rice cultivation practiced.

Gilund

• Also in Banas Valley.
• Known for stone blade industry.

Daimabad

• Largest Jorwe culture site in the Godavari Valley.
• Famous for bronze objects such as rhinoceros, elephant, buffalo, and two-wheeled chariot with rider.

Malwa

• Settlements found near the Narmada and tributaries.
• Rich Chalcolithic ceramics discovered.
• Spindle whorls found.

Kayatha

• Located near Chambal river region.
• Mud-plastered floors found.
• Pre-Harappan pottery and sharp copper tools recovered.

Eastern India Sites

• Chirand
• Senuar
• Sonpur
• Mahishdal

Maharashtra Sites

• Songaon
• Inamgaon
• Nasik

Large mud houses, ovens, and circular pit houses found.

Navdatoli

• Located on the Narmada River.
• One of the largest Chalcolithic settlements in India.
• Spread across nearly 10 hectares.
• Many food grains cultivated.

Other Sites

• Nevasa
• Eran

Known for non-Harappan cultural remains.

Iron Age, Arrival of Aryans, Mahajanapadas & One-Shot Revision

With the Chalcolithic phase, early communities had already entered farming, village life, and metal usage. The next major stage in Indian history was the Iron Age, which brought stronger tools, agricultural expansion, warfare innovations, and the rise of larger political states.

Iron Age in India

Time Period

The Iron Age in India is generally placed between 1500 BCE and 200 BCE.

Importance of Iron

The use of iron transformed society in several ways:

• Stronger agricultural tools improved cultivation.
• Forest clearing became easier.
• Permanent settlements expanded.
• Weapons became more effective.
• Trade and state formation accelerated.

This phase played a key role in the rise of later kingdoms and urban centres.

Arrival of Aryans and the Vedic Age

The source text briefly links the Iron Age with the arrival of the Aryans and the Vedic Period.

Historical Significance

The Vedic Age is one of the most important periods of Ancient Indian history because it shaped:

• Early social institutions
• Religious traditions
• Political assemblies
• Agricultural settlements
• Sanskrit literary culture

Main Literary Source

The most important source for this age is the Rigveda, followed by later Vedic texts such as Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

The source also mentions the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism, two major reform movements of ancient India.

Jainism

Associated with Mahavira, Jainism emphasized:

• Non-violence
• Truth
• Self-discipline
• Renunciation

Buddhism

Founded by Gautama Buddha, Buddhism taught:

• Middle Path
• Four Noble Truths
• Eightfold Path
• Compassion and wisdom

Both traditions greatly influenced Indian society, art, philosophy, and politics.

Mahajanapadas

The source notes the Mahajanapadas as the first major civilisation on the banks of the Ganga after the Indus Valley civilisation.

Meaning

Mahajanapada means great territorial state.

Importance

• Rise of organised kingdoms and republics
• Growth of cities and trade
• Coinage expanded
• Political competition increased
• Background for rise of Magadha Empire

These states marked the beginning of a more structured political age in northern India.

Complete One-Shot Revision of Prehistoric India

Chronology

Period	Time
Palaeolithic	500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
Mesolithic	10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE
Neolithic	6000 BCE – 1000 BCE
Chalcolithic	3000 BCE – 500 BCE
Iron Age	1500 BCE – 200 BCE

Quick Facts by Period

Palaeolithic Age

• Old Stone Age
• Hunting and food gathering
• Rough stone tools
• Cave shelters
• Fire known later
• Important site: Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

Mesolithic Age

• Microliths used
• Semi-settled life
• Dog domesticated first
• Rock paintings common
• Important site: Bagor

Neolithic Age

• Farming began
• Polished tools
• Pottery widespread
• Permanent villages
• Important site: Mehrgarh

Chalcolithic Age

• Copper + stone tools
• Village economy
• Pottery advanced
• Social inequality visible
• Important site: Daimabad

Iron Age

• Iron tools and weapons
• Expansion of agriculture
• Rise of states and kingdoms

Important Personalities

• Robert Bruce Foote – discovered Pallavaram handaxe
• Megasthenes
• Faxian
• Xuanzang
• Kautilya

Final UPSC Memory Trick

P-M-N-C-I
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Neolithic
Chalcolithic
Iron Age