Foundation of the Indian National Congress – History Study Notes

The Genesis of Organized Political Activity

Before the birth of the INC, political consciousness in India was primarily regional. Organizations like the British Indian Association (Bengal), the Bombay Association, and the Madras Native Association focused on local grievances and administrative reforms. By the late 19th century, the need for an all-India body became apparent to coordinate these efforts and present a unified front to the British administration.

Several factors catalyzed this shift: the rise of a Western-educated middle class, the emergence of a vernacular press, and the repressive policies of the Lytton era (such as the Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act). The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883) served as a major turning point, exposing the racial arrogance of the British and highlighting the necessity for a national organization to protect Indian interests.

The Formation of the Indian National Congress

The INC was founded in December 1885 in Bombay under the leadership of A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant. The first session was presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee and attended by 72 delegates. Interestingly, the formation of the Congress is often associated with the “Safety Valve Theory,” which suggests that Hume encouraged the formation of the INC to provide a peaceful outlet for rising Indian discontent, thereby preventing a violent uprising similar to 1857.

“The Congress was not the outcome of a conspiracy to provide a safety valve, but the natural culmination of the political awakening that had been building up for decades.” — Modern Nationalist Interpretation.

The early objectives of the Congress were modest. It aimed to promote friendly relations among nationalists, develop a consensus on national issues, and present these to the government via constitutional methods—petitions, prayers, and protests.

The Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

The early leadership, known as the Moderates, included stalwarts like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, and G.K. Gokhale. They believed in the British sense of justice and fairness. Their methodology was characterized by “3Ps”: Petition, Prayer, and Protest.

• Constitutional Agitation: They sought reforms in the legislative councils and demanded the expansion of the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
• Economic Critique: The Moderates were instrumental in highlighting the “Drain of Wealth” theory, popularized by Dadabhai Naoroji, which argued that British rule was the root cause of India’s poverty.
• Loyalism: They maintained a stance of loyalty to the British Crown, believing that British rule was a necessity for India’s modernization.

The Rise of Extremism (1905–1919)

By the turn of the century, a younger generation of leaders—the Extremists—began to challenge the Moderate approach. Led by the Lal-Bal-Pal trio (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal) and Aurobindo Ghosh, they were disillusioned by the lack of tangible results from the “3Ps.”

The Partition of Bengal in 1905 acted as the immediate trigger for the rise of extremism. The Extremists advocated for Swaraj (self-rule) as the goal, rather than mere administrative reforms. Their methods included Swadeshi (using indigenous goods), Boycott of British institutions/goods, and National Education. This shift marked a move from elite, petition-based politics to mass mobilization and direct action.

Key Points to Remember

• First Session: 1885, Bombay, President: W.C. Bonnerjee.
• Safety Valve Theory: Attributed to A.O. Hume; debated by historians.
• Drain of Wealth: Dadabhai Naoroji’s book, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.
• Moderates’ Belief: British rule was a “blessing” in disguise for Indian modernization.
• Extremists’ Goal: Swaraj as a birthright (Tilak’s famous slogan).
• Split: The Surat Split of 1907 marked the formal divide between Moderates and Extremists.

Important Facts: The Evolution of Congress

Quick Revision Summary

• The INC was established to provide a national platform for political discourse.
• Early political activity was driven by the Western-educated middle class.
• The Safety Valve Theory posits that the British allowed the INC to prevent radical revolt.
• Moderates focused on constitutional reforms and the “Drain of Wealth” theory.
• Extremists favored Swaraj, Swadeshi, and Boycott.
• The Partition of Bengal (1905) radicalized the nationalist movement.
• The Surat Split (1907) weakened the organization temporarily but defined the ideological divide.
• The shift in methodology marked the transition from elite politics to mass participation.