Jainism is one of the oldest religious traditions of India. It developed as a major spiritual movement that emphasized non-violence, self-discipline, truth, and liberation of the soul. Jainism became especially influential during the sixth century BCE, when many thinkers questioned ritualism and social inequality. The life and teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira are central to the history of this faith.
Origin of Jainism
Jain tradition considers itself extremely ancient, with roots going back long before the age of Mahavira. According to Jain belief, the religion was guided through time by a succession of enlightened teachers known as Tirthankaras. The term Tirthankara means “ford-maker,” one who shows the path across the ocean of worldly existence toward liberation.
There are twenty-four Tirthankaras in the present cycle of time. The first is believed to be Rishabhanatha, also called Rishabhadeva. The twenty-third Tirthankara was Parshvanatha, who is associated with Varanasi and is believed to have lived before Mahavira, possibly in the eighth or seventh century BCE. Mahavira was the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara of this tradition.
Traditional accounts state that all Tirthankaras were born in Kshatriya families. This reflects the broader social background of many reformist religious leaders of the time.
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira
Vardhamana Mahavira was born around 540 BCE at Kundagrama near Vaishali. His father was Siddhartha and his mother was Trishala, who was connected to the Lichchhavi ruling family. This indicates that Mahavira belonged to a noble and influential lineage.
He married Yasoda and had a daughter known as Anojja or Priyadarsana. However, despite living a household life for some years, he eventually turned toward spiritual pursuit.
At the age of thirty, Mahavira renounced worldly life and became a wandering ascetic. He practiced severe penance, meditation, and self-discipline for thirteen years. Through intense spiritual effort, he attained Kevala Jnana, meaning absolute knowledge or perfect enlightenment, at Jimbhikagrama under a Sal tree when he was forty-two years old.
After attaining enlightenment, he became known by several titles:
Mahavira – the Great Hero
Jina – the Victor over passions and attachment
Jitendriya – conqueror of the senses
Nirgrantha – free from worldly bonds
Kevalin – possessor of perfect knowledge
Mahavira spent nearly thirty years preaching his doctrine across northern India. He died at Pava near Rajagriha at the age of seventy-two. His death is remembered as a significant event in Jain tradition.
Causes for the Rise of Jainism
Several historical factors helped Jainism gain popularity in ancient India.
The Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic, with increasing emphasis on sacrifices and ceremonial practices. Many people sought a simpler and more ethical spiritual path. Jainism offered such an alternative.
Unlike Sanskrit-centered religious traditions, Jain teachings were communicated in Prakrit and related spoken languages, making them easier for ordinary people to understand.
The rigid social hierarchy of the varna system had created hardship for many communities. Jainism gave moral dignity to individuals based on conduct rather than birth, which made it attractive to broader sections of society.
Later, about two centuries after Mahavira’s death, a famine in the Ganga valley led to the migration of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya to southern India, especially Karnataka. This helped Jainism spread strongly in the Deccan and South India.
Teachings of Jainism
Mahavira rejected the authority of Vedic rituals and sacrificial practices. Jain philosophy emphasizes self-effort, ethical discipline, and purification of the soul rather than dependence on divine intervention.
He did not place belief in a creator God at the center of religion. According to Jain thought, the universe functions through natural laws of cause and effect.
Jainism strongly believes in karma and transmigration of the soul. The body perishes, but the soul continues its journey according to past actions. Good actions lead to beneficial results, while harmful deeds create suffering and bondage.
Mahavira advocated austerity, self-control, and non-violence toward all living beings. He emphasized equality in moral worth, though Jainism did not completely reject the social order in the same way some other movements did. He taught that a person becomes noble or ignoble through actions, not merely through birth.
Ascetic discipline was taken to a very high level in Jainism. Fasting, renunciation of possessions, celibacy, and self-restraint were seen as paths toward liberation.
Two Fundamental Categories
Jain philosophy often speaks of two broad elements:
Jiva – living, conscious soul
Ajiva – non-living or non-conscious matter and substances
Triratna of Jainism
The path to liberation rests upon the Three Jewels or Triratna:
Right Faith
Right Knowledge
Right Conduct
Five Great Vows
Right conduct is expressed through five vows:
Ahimsa – non-violence
Satya – truthfulness
Asteya – non-stealing
Aparigraha – non-possession or non-attachment
Brahmacharya – celibacy or control over desires
Split in Jainism
After the migration of Bhadrabahu to South India, another leader, Sthulabhadra, remained in the north with his followers. Differences gradually developed regarding monastic discipline and lifestyle.
This led to the division of Jainism into two main sects:
Svetambara – mainly associated with northern India; monks wore white garments.
Digambara – largely influential in southern India; stricter ascetic practices including renunciation of clothing for monks.
Jain Councils
First Jain Council
The first council was held at Pataliputra in the third century BCE and was presided over by Sthulabhadra. It aimed at preserving Jain teachings and organizing doctrine.
Second Jain Council
The second council took place at Vallabhi in 512 CE under the leadership of Devardhi Kshamasramana. Important Jain texts were compiled and systematized there.
Royal Patrons of Jainism
Jainism received support from several rulers across regions.
In South India, dynasties such as the Kadamba dynasty and Ganga dynasty supported Jain institutions. Rulers like Amoghavarsha and Kumarapala were also important patrons.
In North India, rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, Harshavardhana, and Kharavela are traditionally linked with Jain patronage.
Other Important Jain Concepts
The word Jaina means follower of the Jina, or Victor, one who has conquered attachment and attained spiritual wisdom.
Jain philosophy teaches Anekantavada, the doctrine that reality is many-sided and cannot be understood fully from only one viewpoint.
It also explains existence through three aspects:
Dravya – substance
Guna – quality
Paryaya – mode or changing condition
Conclusion
Jainism became one of the most influential reform movements of ancient India. Through its emphasis on non-violence, truth, self-restraint, and respect for all life, it offered an ethical alternative to ritualistic traditions. The teachings of Mahavira continue to shape Indian thought, culture, and spiritual life even today.
